The Treaty of Westphalia, signed in 1648, is considered a landmark in European history. Which of the following was NOT a direct outcome of this treaty?

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The Treaty of Westphalia (1648) ended the Thirty Years' War and established the concept of sovereign nation-states. It recognized the independence of the Dutch Republic and Switzerland, reduced Habsburg power, and strengthened France. However, it did NOT establish the League of Nations—that was created in 1920 after World War I. The treaty also did not abolish the Holy Roman Empire (which persisted until 1806) or create a unified European government.

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